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The Conestoga wagon, also simply known as the Conestoga, is a horse-drawn freight wagon that was used exclusively in North America, primarily the United States, in the 18th and 19th centuries. Such wagons were probably first used by Pennsylvania Dutch settlers in the early 18th century. Named for the Conestoga River, such wagons were in use as early as 1717.
Conestoga wagons are larger, heavier versions of , covered by hemp cloths stretched over hoops, with large wheels for traveling over primitive roads, and curved sides and floor to keep the contents centered. They were pulled by a team of four to six horses. The first examples of this type may have been built at home by farmers but later were produced commercially by wagon makers and wheelwrights.
Conestoga wagons were used to carry up to of produce or manufactured goods between farms and towns. They were most often used in the northeast United States, especially Pennsylvania, and were rarely used further west than the Mississippi River; lightweight and cheaper covered wagons were preferred by westbound pioneers. The similar but lighter Nissen wagon was used in the southeastern states. Conestoga wagons fell out of use as canals and railroads proliferated in the 19th century, which proved to be more efficient means of transporting goods.
There is no documented record of any strictly "first" Conestoga wagon to have ever been made. Covered wagon designs may have been standardized in design within colonial America, making it differ from the varied designs of English farm wagons of the 18th–19th centuries. They may have derived from both English road wagons and large wagons of Germany although this remains speculative. The earliest documented usage of the American wagons was in 1716 when Philadelphia fur trader James Logan, who took over William Penn's business estate after his death, wrote in his account book the usage of an individual wagon by the wagoner John Miller for hauling goods from Philadelphia to the Conestoga River Valley in what is now Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Two other wagons were built and put to use by other individuals from the Conestoga valley named James Hendricks and Joseph Cloud in 1717. In November of the same year, Logan established a store for selling hardware and household goods to German settlers and Native Americans in Conestoga. Logan then purchased what he called a "Conestogoe Waggon" from James Hendricks on December 31, 1717, thus making this the earliest known mention of the wagon name.
The name "Conestoga wagon" likely derived from the Conestoga River Valley, which was a settlement area for American colonists by the early 18th century that was about from Philadelphia and from Lancaster, Pennsylvania. The earliest usage of the name "Conestoga" was previously applied to a river stream by the merchant Augustine Herman in 1665, and it was also used as a name for the now-extinct Susquehannock tribe. The slang term "stogie", used for long and cheap made from rolled leaves and at times smoked by Conestoga wagoners, may have derived from the Conestoga wagon term.
Farm wagons became increasingly prevalent in Philadelphia since after 1720, many of which were referred to as "Conestoga" or "Dutch" wagons. Advertisements in The Pennsylvania Gazette indicate that the former term saw common usage by February 5, 1750, for a Philadelphia tavern named "The Sign of the Conestogoe Wagon". The synonymous term "Dutch Waggon" was also used for the location for another advertisement in the same newspaper published on February 12, 1750.
Conestoga wagons derived in design from earlier covered wagons. They had general boat-like shapes, their sides slanting outwards. The interior floors of the wagon type were slightly curved. The wagons combined with three pairs of hauling horses could have measured up to long. Depending on the weight load of the wagons, the terrestrial vehicles were transported by some four to six horses. In comparison, American western frontier covered wagons were often transported by oxen instead of horses, but travelers tended to prefer the latter option. The largest Conestoga wagons may have been capable of carrying up to of goods. Some Conestoga wagons had as many as 8 draft horses, but none ever had fewer than 4 of them.
The Conestoga horse was a specialized breed of heavy and large draft animal as well as one of the few horse breeds to have originated from North America. The origins of the breed is unknown, but they probably originated from a few individual horses from Pennsylvania. They were popularly used because of their abilities to haul loaded heavy Conestoga wagons. Conestoga horses typically came in black horse or bay hair coat colors but were sometimes gray horse. The Conestoga horse breed went extinct likely as a result of the decline of Conestoga wagon usage.
The pack horses were often equipped with bells, but when such a practice started is unknown. The bells are small-sized and located on wearable "Conestoga bell arches", sturdy iron pieces measuring to . The lead horses (or front horses) often had five small bells, the middle horses four, and the pole horses (back horses) three larger ones for a total of twenty-four bells on the entire team. The bell sounds coming from the Conestoga team were often seen by wagoners as a source of pride and some would tune them for better sound. Traditionally, a Conestoga wagon team that arrived without any bells on, usually the result of forfeiting them to another team when they needed assistance on a damaged or stuck wagon, was seen as a source of humiliation. The archaic American phrase "" therefore derived from this now-obsolete tradition.
The wagon body of a Conestoga wagon, known also as a "box" or "bed", has a complex design compared to typically simple rectangular wagon boxes. The designs of the Conestoga wagon's body were intended to make the wagon last a long time and be flexible for traveling through roads that are normally rough for heavy-loaded vehicles. As a result, the Conestoga wagon is more representative in technological niches as a large-sized basket on a set of wheels than a box. Its designs were meant to replicate large-sized that serve the dual purposes of carrying heavy quantities of goods and withstanding hostile environmental conditions such as currents. Historians George Shumway and Howard C. Frey considered nonsensical the suggestions in early United States history books that the Conestoga wagon boxes allowed for traveling passengers and goods across rivers—the boxes were not water-tight and would have leaked if placed in water bodies.
The wagon bed is typically created from the hardy woods of white oaks ( Quercus alba). It measures in length from its front to rear ends and never more than in width. Six to twelve sloping hooplike hickory bows or "tilts", reaching individual grounded heights of , are arched over the wagon's bed to hold the white canvas sheet that covers them. The canvas, a cloth made from hemp fiber, was tied down to both sides of the wagon body but were left overhanging at both its front and rear ends. The white sheet measures approximately long. The positioning of the canvas serves to shield the wagon's contents from rainfall while allowing for air circulation for cargo and passengers. The Conestoga wagon was extensively painted given the prominence of flair in Pennsylvania Dutch culture. The wagon box has light blue color tones whereas the were black and the wheels, other running gear (the components allowing a vehicle to move and stop), and sideboards were vermilion in color. The prominence of color in Conestoga wagons make it partially differ from other covered wagons, many of which had no painted colors due to concerns that draft animals were frightened by bright colors.
On the left side of the Conestoga wagon is a short but strong white oak board known as the "lazy board". It is able to bear the weight of the wagon driver, or his helper if he hired one, who managed his draft animals plus team and operated the brake there. This meant that the driver had a habit of operating Conestoga wagons from the left side. The heavy and sturdy brakes served to slow down the wagon's wheels when the driver held the iron handle (or "lock patent") down, and the handles were also used to lock the brakes. The brakes were vital for managing the wagon through rough roads. The tongue, or a long board in the wagon's front area, may be plated in iron before being painted.
There are several other covered wagon variants, known from complete wagon evidence, that closely resemble the Conestoga wagon. The Weber wagon, utilized in the early 19th century, differs from typical Conestoga wagons in the presence of a front end panel and an almost vertical tail gate. Whether it and the similar Sternberg wagon and Shantz wagon can be considered Conestoga wagons is a matter of subjectivity according to Shumway and Frey. On the other hand, the Groff wagon of the later 19th century, known by a single specimen, is clearly distinct from Conestoga wagons despite similar appearances in different constructions of the front end panel and lower sides. The "Sheibley wagon" has similar shapes to the Groff wagon but is classified as a Conestoga wagon because of the formatting of the wagon bed and bows. The Nissen wagon is a distinct covered wagon variant originating from North Carolina that derived in design from the Conestoga wagon. Therefore, Nissen wagons can superficially resemble Conestoga wagons, but the former differs from the latter in usage as lightweight carriage of people and items instead of as heavyweight carriage of goods and the presence of a box in the front area where a driver and a passenger could sit. The Nissen wagon uses just two draft horses given its lightweight nature and is synonymous with the alternate term "Salem wagon".
The axletrees are wooden and encased with iron coverings. The wagon's wheels are kept in place by iron . The rear brake mechanism can be handy for the covered wagons but are not required, hence the lack of them in some Conestoga wagons. The front hounds are made from oak wood and are the connecting piece between the wagon tongue and the front axletree. They are bound by a transverse oak and iron brace piece that can keep the wagon tongue up. The front hounds can also support the curved iron pieces that minimize sideways swaying and prevent toppling for the front wagon portion. The left front hound may also hold an iron sheath for an axe that wagoners can use to cut through wood obstacles or make new tongues and axletrees.
The Conestoga wagon wheels were high so that the axles (or wheel centers) could clear through or move over low obstacles such as tree stumps and mud. The wheels, equipped with iron , ranged in size in accordance to the wagon's size, the largest having been used for the Pitt wagon variants of the early 19th century for mountain-freighting. The rear wheels of large wagons on average have diameters between and while the front wheels were smaller and generally measured approximately in diameter. Medium-sized Conestoga wagon rear wheels meanwhile generally measure between and in diameter. The tires of large Conestoga wagon rear wheels usually measure to in width while those of medium Conestoga wagon rear wheels measured about in width. Conestoga wagons used for hauling and farming may have been complemented with different wheel size sets for performing different transversal duties, from small wheels for farms to large ones for road travel. Medium-sized wheels normally contain 14 (or rods connecting to the wheel's center) while large wheels usually have 16 of them.
The feed box measures long, approximately wide, and deep in dimensions. The top edges of the trough are embedded with light iron straps to prevent damage to it by the horses' teeth. The iron lug and pin of the feed box, positioned at the opposite ends of the trough from each other, are intended to fix the box's position at the tongue while the horses feed. The water bucket fills a similar purpose for consumption of water from nearby water sources by horses. The tar pot was wooden and had a lid with a central hole and a paddle for applying the lubricant of pine tar and lard to the axles.
In addition to the axe and toolbox which Conestoga wagons were equipped with, the wagon jack, used for raising wagons up, was another tool that was equipped on them, specifically probably in its rear end. They were highly durable and tended to have outlasted the wagons themselves, making them valuable for antique collectors. Trends around the size increase of wagon jacks is correlated directly with the increased size of the covered wagons.
In the 18th century, farmers were expected to support themselves and their families by combined knowledge of farming and blacksmithing. Based on tax assessments in Lancaster County, the turn of the 19th century marked a shift towards specialized craftsmanship as and wagon makers became separate occupations from blacksmiths, all three of whom worked together to produce Conestoga wagons. Blacksmiths at times also hired apprentices to operate or produce tools. Blacksmiths used various tools such as , hammer and anvils, , and drills to iron the wagon's gear and decorate the wagon bed. Early on, they built most of the wagon except for the wheels, but the wagon builder occupation later arose by the turn of the 19th century to help with the construction process. The construction of the Conestoga wagon was a laborious process and required light but strong wood of pure qualities. Because of the long process and importance of the wagon in the United States, a finished product could have cost as much as $250 in 1820.
Blacksmiths of high expertise were able to not only iron but decorate different elements of the Conestoga wagon such as toolbox lids. The tendencies by blacksmiths to decorate Conestoga wagons with motifs, often those of Pennsylvania Dutch culture such as tulips, hearts, serpents, and birds, are the result of competitive efforts to catch interest of their wagons by customers. Toolbox lids today are valuable collector's items for both museums and private collectors. Women played roles in Conestoga wagon production as well, using loom devices to weave simple canvas covers and ensure that they fit with the corresponding wagons according to the wagons' sizes and the curvature of the wagon beds.
By the time Conestoga wagons were commercially produced for the United States, the wagon makers individually tended to employ some 20 to 25 assistants in the construction process, but they did not strictly compose any single factory. Also, the Conestoga wagon was never completely standardized in design. Covered wagons resembling Conestoga wagons were built throughout the country, but true Conestoga wagon production, fairly organized in structure, was almost entirely restricted to eastern Pennsylvania. In the later 19th century in comparison, wagon shops in the United States tended to compose less than five workers total.
By 1720, farm wagons were already put into usage within the British colony of Pennsylvania as they carried merchandise from Philadelphia to Lancaster county in exchange for furs. In the mid-18th century, the German immigrants of Lancaster County produced their own Conestoga wagons for hauling crops elsewhere and for traveling on dirt roads. The covered wagons often carried flour and iron ores from Lancaster to Philadelphia in exchange for tools, clothing, and furniture. They were also hauled from Conestoga, Pennsylvania, to Philadelphia, where they returned to the former area with basic goods such as lead, gunpowder, rum, and salt.
Major-General Edward Braddock arrived to North America in February 1755 to carry out his role as commander-in-chief of the British forces during the French and Indian War. Colonel Sir John St. Clair informed Braddock about settlers at the Blue Ridge Mountains who were running provisions and stores, expressing confidence that by early May 1755, they would have 200 wagons and 1,500 pack horses ready for deployment into Fort Cumberland. Unfortunately for Braddock, only 25 wagons were deployed for the British frontier port by April, several of which were actually unusable. The major-general was aggravated in reaction to the underwhelming resources and wanted to shut down the expedition, but he later commissioned Benjamin Franklin to gather some 150 wagons and 1,500 pack horses from the locals. Franklin eventually succeeded in Braddock's demands but with great difficulty due to farmers being unable to afford giving up their resources and the Pennsylvania assembly having little interest in the war due to Quaker affinities. Another challenge was of building roads, as several road builders under Colonel James Burd were being killed by Native Americans, leading to many others threatening to quit their work unless they were given protection.
Letters and newspaper accounts of the 1750s confirm the usage of farm wagons during the Braddock Expedition that were referred to as "Conestoga wagons". No wagon of the war campaign survives today, but archeological evidence of wagon fragments provide limited evidence of the wagon designs. The wheel diameters are typical of farm wagons rather than military vehicles, and the presence of strakes for wagon wheels indicate the lack of brakes in early farm wagons that later Conestoga wagons had. The wagons used by Braddock's men also carried smaller loads compared to later Conestoga wagons due to their smaller sizes.
According to the British Army officer Robert Orme, the wagons, artillery, and carrying horses were placed into three different divisions that were each overseen by an appointed superior. The wagon masters of each division were expected to keep their teams stable and replenish horses when needed. During the expedition, many wagons sustained critical damage and were replaced by wagons from other camps. Management of horses also proved problematic as they were often lost or brought home by their owners, and those that remained grew weaker over time. Some wagons had to be sent back due to being too heavy, and the others had loads removed in order to reduce their weights.
The Braddock Expedition ended with the Battle of the Monongahela, which ultimately proved to be disastrous for the British Army. Many of Braddock's soldiers were killed or wounded by the opposing French and their allied Native American forces, and Braddock himself was mortally wounded. Most of the British artillery, wagons, and supplies were abandoned by the British army as they quickly retreated, meaning that a majority of the remaining wagons were lost. Most of the wagons at Dunbar's Camp were burned by the British to prevent the French and Native Americans from seizing their materials as they anticipated pursuit by the enemy forces. Only a few wagons of the Braddock Expedition ultimately returned to Wills Creek in Pennsylvania, most of which were evidently damaged beyond repair. All the wagon owners were ultimately compensated both for the use of the wagons and, where appropriate, their loss. In total, 146 wagons are thought to have been employed for the disastrous Braddock Expedition, the only wagon which appears to have survived intact being that of William Douglas.
Beginning in the early 19th century, wagons became larger as evident by the size increase of the wagon jacks over time. They were also hauled across rivers such as the Susquehanna River via ferry boats, and heavy wagon traffic for ferrying had resulted in wagons waiting in line for up to three days. It was used to some extent for travel to the western frontier, but it was generally too heavy, required too many draft animals for hauling, and was an expensive vehicle to build or purchase. Standard "prairie schooners" were much more often used since they were lighter, had sturdier wheels, and were cheaper. The perception of Conestoga wagons being the preferred vehicle of choice for traveling westward in North America is seemingly the result of them being better-represented in literature and media compared to the smaller prairie schooners. Still, by the 1840s, the Conestoga wagon saw usage in the Santa Fe Trail, being distinguished in purpose from the medium and light covered wagons used by settlers migrating to California or Oregon. Conestoga wagons saw also some usage by German immigrants of the British provinces of what is now Canada, typically carrying of goods, and roads were built to accommodate wagon travel.
Wagoners, especially in Pennsylvania, often stopped by at taverns, also at the time called "stations". From Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, to Pittsburgh, there were about 150 taverns, or roughly 1 tavern for each mile. The inns of the 19th century often contained large signs containing painted figures and words that were mounted on posts at the highway to catch the attention of wagoners, including those who were illiterate. The taverns were numerous, but not all of them welcomed wagoners in for service. In the winter, the wagons were parked on planks so that the wheels would not freeze while the wagoners stayed in overnight. The taverns were normally crowded on busy days, and wagoners may have expected greetings from other tavern guests, ranging from fellow wagoners to community members meeting up there. Tavern keepers, generally influential men of their communities, made profits from selling liquor and meals to them, but their revenue mainly came from overnight stays, which would have cost less than $1.75. The next morning, wagoners followed typical schedules of eating breakfast then tending to their horses (i.e. feeding and watering them) before departing.
The decline of the Conestoga wagon and most other covered wagons in the later 19th century did not include the decline of all covered wagon variants, however. The Nissen Wagon, originating in North Carolina, was still a popular transport vehicle throughout the 19th century; contemporaneous production numbers reflect that high demand. In the early 20th century, the Nissen Wagon Works continued to produce Nissen Wagons in high numbers for southeastern states, but by the 1940s their use had declined.
The legacy of the Conestoga wagon endured as a symbol of the early United States, being viewed in romantic light along with regular covered wagons in the 20th century. The popular image of the Conestoga wagon was roughly comparable to that of another American horse-drawn vehicle called the Concord coach. The Covered Wagon, a silent film released in 1923, was amongst the earliest cases of covered wagons in 20th-century popular culture. The Little House on the Prairie book series features a Conestoga wagon that was owned by the Ingalls family. The cultural depictions of the covered wagons represented American values of pioneering in its early history. The Conestoga wagon is also featured in tradition in the form of a sports trophy that the football teams of Dickinson College and Franklin & Marshall College had competed for since 1963, and the wagon model of the trophy is meant to represent a Conestoga wagon that had transported the teams of both colleges back in 1889.
In the modern day, the legacy of Conestoga wagons declined mostly to books, paintings, and historical artifacts held by museums and private collections. Nonetheless, they have been preserved to tell American history and establish appreciation for historical relics. The National Museum of American History, as an example, featured a Conestoga wagon to encourage children to wonder about 19th-century American family lives within the wagons, especially their struggles.
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